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节育负担可能很快分担


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直到21st世纪,但是控制生育能力的渴望已经存在了很多年。可以追溯到1850年的医学记录显示,出生时分配的女性(AFAB)将混合成分,例如蜂蜜,相思的水果和叶子,将材料或海绵浸入混合物中,然后在性交前插入生殖器中,以防止概念。这种做法中使用的其他成分包括鳄鱼粪便,橄榄油和柠檬。在全球液体汞,液态铅和砷中消耗量以防止怀孕;但是,这些重金属也可能导致器官衰竭和死亡。这首次记录使用of a condom, in the form of a goat bladder, was~3000 BCE and records from~1000 CE表明,埃及人在出生时分配男性(AMAB)使用亚麻鞘来覆盖其在性交中的生殖器以预防疾病。


Unintended pregnancies can have lasting effects on individuals, families and society. The direct healthcare costs of unintended pregnancies in low- and middle-income countries amounted to2019年100亿美元独自的。有证据表明,当制定家庭规划计划时,个人有更少的孩子,并且他们的怀孕进一步分开


In this article we will explore a variety of contraceptives, their advantages and drawbacks, as well as emerging technologies and techniques that could improve contraceptive options and broaden their access.

Modern medicine: A marvel

通过当前避孕状态的15-49岁的AFAB分布百分比

Figure 1 :当前避孕状况的15-49岁人口AFAB的百分比分布:2017 - 2019年美国。改编自National Center for Health Statistics全国家庭增长调查,2017 - 2019年。


Thanks to modern medicine, we have a comprehensive choice ofcontraceptives今天可用。这些被广泛归类为荷尔蒙(e.g., contraceptive pill, intrauterine devices (IUDs), implant and injection) ornon-hormonal(例如,避孕套,铜管和隔膜)。大多数激素避孕药通过操纵激素水平来模仿妊娠,从而阻止卵巢释放卵(卵母细胞)。相比之下,non-hormonal避孕药预防精子(精子)与卵母细胞结合。


Contraception can also be divided into long-term, short-term and permanent.


Table 1:Types of hormonal contraceptive.

Method Regimen 附加信息

Contraceptive pill


Daily

第一种避孕药是在1957年使用孕激素(合成孕酮)和雌激素的组合开发的。有两种类型的口服避孕药,一种含有孕激素和雌激素,另一种仅包含孕激素。激素避孕药是most commonly使用的非永久避孕方法。

宫内系统(IUS)


每3-5年更换一次 一个小的,T形塑料设备它位于子宫内,慢慢释放孕激素。

Implant


Replace every 3 years Aflexible plastic rodthat is inserted into the skin of the upper arm. The implant works by releasing progestin into the bloodstream to thicken cervical mucous to block spermatozoa and stop ovulation.

注射


Dose every 3 months 此方法涉及injection孕激素进入血液以防止排卵。

Patch


每周更换 patch是一种薄的石膏状方贴纸,可释放雌激素和孕激素,以防止排卵。

Table 2:Types of non-hormonal contraceptive.

Method
Regimen
附加信息

Condoms

活动
首先避孕套were used to protect against disease and were made from animal intestines or different types of cloth. Condoms were first produced using rubber in 1839.

Internal condoms

活动 最早之一internal condoms由激进主义者于1923年晋升Marie Stopes并由厚橡胶护套和钢线圈边缘制成。该避孕套的现代版本,使用聚氨酯和后来的硝酸酯制成approved by the FDAin 1993 but received unflattering press coverage and受到好评by consumers.

Copper intrauterine device (IUD)

每5至10年更换一次
AT形塑料设备coated in copper that is fitted in the uterus. The copper damages spermatozoa and prevents it from meeting the oocyte.

Diaphragm

活动
A silicon or rubber shallow dome used as a cervical barrier.Diaphragmssit in front of the cervix to prevent spermatozoa from reaching the uterus.

Vasectomy

Once – permanent
surgeryinvolves the blocking or cutting of the vas deferens – the tubes that carry spermatozoa in the scrotum.

输卵管结扎术

Once – permanent
surgeryinvolves the blocking or sealing of the fallopian tubes so as to prevent oocytes reaching spermatozoa.

自然计划生育

Track daily 这involves the observation of different fertility indicators (e.g.,temperature) during the menstrual cycle to predict the window of ovulation.

Contraception turn-offs

Although〜65%的人AFAB据报道,在2017 - 2019年使用避孕措施,在美国使用15-49岁的年龄,没有任何类型的避孕药是没有缺点的(图1)。在一项全球研究中,几乎35%的人停产他们在管理后的36个月内使用与方法相关的原因(包括副作用或健康问题)引起的避孕方法。避孕方法的有效性也可能不清楚,例如,避孕药是99.7%有效with perfect use, but 93% effective with “common use”. The数量增加of individuals who opt for surgical sterilization as a method of family planning, the high prevalence of abortions and the high rate of teenage pregnancy all suggest that additional contraceptive methods are needed and sought after.


如表1和表2所示,大多数避孕药是由这些AFAB使用的。个人AMAB可以使用有限的选择:“避孕套,输精管切除术,戒断和性亲密关系,而无需性交,”Dr. David Turok, associate professor at the University of Utah Department of obstetrics and gynecology. Dr. Turok is also the Utah site principal investigator for an ongoing临床试验目前正在招募夫妇,以测试一种新型的在Cisgender男子上的荷尔蒙避孕凝胶。


他补充说:“持续需要开发新方法。”对于Scisgender的男人来说,几乎没有选择“有助于降低妊娠风险,并增加一个人可能会产生巨大的不同。如果在异性恋关系中使用了一种方法,则该组合将非常有效预防怀孕。”

Accessing contraception

According to estimates made in 2017 by theWorld Health Organization,发展中国家的2.14亿人AFAB希望避免怀孕,但没有使用现代避孕方法。健康问题, side effects, problems with access and opposition from others are cited as reasons for this disuse. According to a发表在柳叶刀,虽然现代避孕药使用率的增加(从2012年的23.9%到2017年的28.5%),但总体使用远低于发达国家。例如,在美国,65.3%的人在2017年至2019年之间使用某种形式的避孕药具(见图1)。许多人也有limited access to contraceptivesdue to institutionalized racism, homophobia and transphobia.


On the topic of access to contraceptives,Dr. Erica Cahill, clinical assistant professor of obstetrics and gynecology, Stanford University, said, “The biggest factors are cost and availability. There are many研究显示如果人们不必考虑成本,他们会选择不同的方法。政策等政策负担得起的护理法许多人的访问取得了巨大的进步。”


她继续说:“可用性也很关键。这包括具有所有方法(包括避孕植入物)的诊所。为了公平地使用植入物和宫内节育器,重要的是减少生殖胁迫,并在患者愿意的情况下承诺去除这些植入物,而不会让患者跳过篮球以证明在到期前的去除是合理的。”


Many pharmacies do not stock emergency contraceptives, Cahill emphasized as there are still misconceptions about emergency contraceptive options causing abortions, though this has beendisproved

投资避孕研究

2018年,该地区contraceptive research和收到最多资金的开发(研发)是short-acting drugs and devices(approximately 22.5 million US dollars). In comparison, pancreatic cancer research received259 million US dollarsin 2018


From January 2019 to 2022, there were只有17行业资助的临床试验着重于避孕发展,与5024试验in the field of cancer research.


Many multinational pharmaceutical companies abandoned both their hormonal and nonhormonal避孕研发计划in the early 2000s. There are several challenges associated with developing a novel contraceptive that may deter investments in time and money by pharmaceutical companies. It is一个昂贵的过程,新方法必须同样安全,并且更多的effective than those currently available. Because contraceptives are given to healthy individuals, the tolerance for side effects is lower than for other drugs given to patients with a specific condition/disease. Also, in order to compete with other methods, new contraceptives need to cheap to produce to make them cost effective.

Side effects and suitability across hormonal and non-hormonal contraception

第一种避孕药1960年获得美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA)的批准,并包含150微克的人造雌激素,称为梅尔stanol。这种剂量通常会导致副作用,包括乳房疼痛,恶心和呕吐。此后,制药公司开发了药丸配方,将较低水平的雌激素(通常约为20/30微克)与孕激素结合在一起,但一些用户仍然会产生不愉快的副作用。接受含有人造雌激素的节育的人比非用户更有可能发展血栓形成(血块)。


A 2017学习reported a significant reduction in the general wellbeing of people taking oral contraceptives. Another学习reportedhigher depressive symptom scores in 16-year-old oral contraceptive users compared with their counterparts.


Reportedside effects与荷尔蒙避孕药的使用相关,包括痤疮,情绪低落,性欲降低,头痛,沉重和/或不规则月经,恶心和体重增加。2005年至2014年之间52个国家的人口和健康调查表明20–33% of people AFAB据报道,由于围绕副作用的担忧,不使用避孕措施。


Some individuals cannot use hormonal methods of contraception (e.g., those withcertain types of canceror high blood pressure), and non-hormonal methods generally have风险更少因为根据定义,它们不涉及暴露于激素。但是,这些方法仍然会产生不利的副作用。例如,铜宫可能与较重,更长或更痛苦的时期有关,这是由于安装宫内节育器,骨盆炎性疾病而可能的感染,uterine perforation和异位妊娠。坐在阴道管中的其他设备,例如隔膜和避孕套,可能会导致刺激,干燥,皮疹或过敏

避孕的未来

正如与现有避孕方法相关的各种问题所证明的那样,有必要扩展可用的选项。卡希尔(Cahill)认为,可以改进的避孕研究的两个关键领域是“有效的非荷尔蒙选择和'按需'或“仅在交往时使用”选项”。


她指出:“在这些空间中,我们还没有看到很多新颖的方法。”


但是,在过去的几年中,FDA批准了一些选项,包括Phexxi®,Cahill将其描述为“一种非激素阴道凝胶,与杀精子剂不同,因为它通过更改阴道的pH来起作用。对于寻求按需方法的人们而言,这是一个不错的选择,而无需任何激素改变。”


卡希尔(Cahill)强调的另一个最近批准的避孕药是AnnoveraTM, a vaginal contraceptive ring containing progestin developed by the国际避孕研究委员会。这ring can be used for an entire year and does not require refrigeration – particularly important for distribution and use in low-resource settings.


这re are currently no FDA-approved contraceptives为那些amab设计besides condoms. However there are some实验选择,两种激素(a避孕药) and non-hormonal (e.g.,精子结合IgG抗体) under clinical evaluation. An experimental non-hormonal contraceptive compound, known as YCT529, wasrecently found to be 99% effectivewhen used in male mice to prevent pregnancy.


Turok explained how the contraceptive gel at the center of his clinical trial works: “The gel has two drugs in it. The first is Nesterone®, which signals to the brain to stop making gonadotropin-releasing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone, stopping sperm production. However, sperm can live for about two months [in the testes], so it takes about that long for the drug to be effective. Nesterone also blocks testosterone production. So, the second drug [in the gel] is testosterone, which is added back to maintain normal levels of that hormone.”

了解生育激素


促性腺激素释放激素(GNRH)is released by the hypothalamus everyone to three hours并刺激AFAB和AMAB个体中垂体中刺激卵泡刺激激素的产生。

刺激激素(FSH)对AFAB人的卵巢作用开始卵母细胞开发并导致雌激素水平的增加,进而降低FSH并增加黄体生成激素水平。在AMAB人员中,FSH的水平受睾丸激素的调节,并促进生产精子

黄体生物激素(LH)在那些AFAB中有助于卵母细胞的成熟和排卵,并刺激AMAB个体中睾丸激素的产生。

Progesteroneis produced during ovulation by the corpus luteum (the formation of which is triggered by LH and prepares the endometrial tissue to allow for the implantation of a fertilized oocyte.


Testosteroneis responsible for the regulation of FSH and production of spermatozoa.

Estrogenscause oocyte maturation, ovulation and增厚endometrial tissue

通过使用激素避孕药改变上述激素的水平,可以中断月经周期或精子产生的阶段,以防止繁殖。

他继续说:“巢酮的作用类似于药丸,斑块或阴道环……在这两种情况下,一种合成的外源激素都使大脑诱使大脑不产生繁殖所需的激素。”


卡希尔对避孕研究的未来发表了评论:“我们已经有了很长的路要走,认为人们正在选择一种终生方法,并会间歇性地构想。我们还考虑了基线生育能力,伴侣类型(类型的性交),月经周期的变化和欲望以及停止避孕方法恢复生育能力的时间。”


“我们仍然有很多信息可以了解不同的人如何代谢和处理药物,以及避孕药和其他药物之间的相互作用(包括诸如PHEXXI等方法的润滑剂)。我们在这里引起了一些浪潮,其中有更多的研究考虑肥胖和其他基线生物物理因素,但我们绝对需要更多的研究。”卡希尔总结道。

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Kate Robinson
Kate Robinson
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